Types of Art Last Words of Dutch Schultz 2003

Korotchenko, E.A. Psychological Institute of the Russian Academy of Education, Moscow, Russia

Abstract

This article describes research on visual semantics, different forms of metaphor used in rhetoric and philology (tropes: metonymy, hyperbole, litotes, oxymoron, and others), and images, which are metaphorical also. The research was carried out using paintings. The authors land that the role of metaphor is to transform the sense of the image from a psychological point of view.

Despite the fact that literature (the muse of epic poesy, Calliope) and painting art (the god Apollo) are traditionally considered two different types of fine art, distinctions among an image, a concept, and a give-and-take are rather conventional. Artists practice not brand a copy of their own perceptions, but, co-ordinate to Leont'ev (1997, p. 287), they set themselves the task of realizing the existence of human objective reality and its position in the universe.

Concepts (secondary images; run into Gostev, 1998) – that is, images of fantasy or retentivity – announced in a person'south mind by means of imagination and take no physical stimulus. The transitional position from image to concept is sick-studied in the psychology of perception. This field of psychology is virtually unknown, but the heuristic approach used in its research is based on holographic models of consciousness and memory.

The concept, a virtual and invisible fabric, makes an creative person create on a canvas. Just as a musician composes music using the "mute" piano, and then an artist paints a picture without using brushes, just in his or her own mind.

Even if artists create their paintings in the open air, they exercise non copy reality but seek harmony between their thoughts and their emotional state. Scenery is a reflection of the artist's listen (encounter Petrenko & Кorotchenko, 2008). Both consciousness and imagination run through the works of both writers and artists. "Art is creative thinking, in other words, information technology is thinking through images" (Potebnya, 1990, p. 163).

Discussions of issues regarding the image in fine art are constitute in Arnheim (1973, 1974, 1994, 2004), Basin, Prangishvili, & Sherozia (1978), Mol' (1966), Petrenko (1988, 1997, 2005), Rappoport (1978), Ruuber (1985), Yarbus (1965), Zinchenko (2001, 2005), Znakov (2005).

An artist is as cogitating as a author who creates narratives or a philosopher who uses general categories. If an creative person starts from consciousness of the plot and determination of the semantics so goes for an immediate cosmos on a sheet, a spectator gets the creative person'south semantics and plot, gets a perception of the visual pictorial idea.

A spectator's perception of paintings requires mutual action just as a writer's words crave correction and comprehension of the text's plot by readers (see Leont'ev, 1997; Ushakova, 2006). On looking at a canvas covered with watercolors (in Ferdinand de Saussure's terms, a plan of expression), a viewer comprehends the plot and the spirit of the creator; the visual perception of color patterns helps the viewer realize the concepts that the artist had in heed.

In his lectures on general psychology, A. Luria used to tell his students nearly the simultaneousness of the image and the successiveness of spoken language (text), seeing them as basic contrasts (Luria, 2004). But here, in our opinion, the distinction between an image and a text is not absolute. Melchuk (1974) developed a model for formalizing the meaning of the text; this model compares the content, a sequence of the text, to the "epitome," to the simultaneous connected and oriented semantic graph that has the basic meanings (the words of the language) and the generalized relations (the predicates of the language). The simultaneous language of significant, in our opinion, is extremely promising in psychology, where it could be used to report holistic insight reproductions of gestalts in Dunker-type mental tasks.

The use of the analogy of an image and a text allowed us to define "the paradigm as a perceptive argument about the world" (Petrenko, 1976, p. 270) and makes it possible to apply the methods of psychosemantics and linguistics in the assay of visual art (meet Petrenko, 1998, 2005).

Picture i. Leonardo da Vinci, The Lord'southward Supper

Paintings, as a rule, have a literary subject, simply represented in the title, which provides the literary discourse, the direction for associations. This is true primarily nearly classical painting, which tends to have evolution, just development beyond the fine art work. "[A] literary subject necessarily takes us across the moving picture, requires development" (Ingarden, 1962, p. 281). To empathise what is depicted in the painting, it is necessary to refer to its literary aspect (to its literary subject area).

Co-ordinate to Ingarden (1962, p. 283):

If we leave aside the whole legend of Jesus and turn it off in our minds while looking at the pic [Movie one], the motion picture... will probably be something entirely different from what information technology should represent in relation to its title. We would not see Jesus and his disciples gathered for a concluding meal and would not relate the eating of staff of life and the drinking of vino to Christian doctrine, but we would see just a grouping of men of different ages around the table and would not or would hardly understand their gestures and facial expressions. But fifty-fifty though the picture would contain a specific literary topic, although quite dissimilar from what is expressed in it, when nosotros know the story almost the Jesus, the proper noun of the motion-picture show draws our attention to a specific signal in history.

An artistic image is symbolic by nature. "The creative image, devoid of a generalizing grapheme and a powerful symbolic picture of this life, is always only a weak naturalistic copy of life" (Losev, 1991, p. 251).

The transition from an image to a symbol, according to Bakhtin, "makes it semanically deep and gives a semantic perspective. ...The original symbol is compared with the thought of the global totality by content, having space and the man universe" (Bakhtin, 1986, pp. 381-382).

Agreement the symbolic meaning of a work of art, according to Arnheim (1994), is the master job of a viewer who looks at a picture. Contemplating the work, the viewer is experiencing the atmosphere depicted in the painting: a misty river arouses feelings of neglect and sedation, a mountain arouses the feeling of grandeur. Each work of fine art or visual symbol used in the genre of landscape has its own interpretation and is associated with its own meaning (see Petrenko & Korotchenko, 2008). For case, peacefulness can be depicted equally a serene sea and a bright sky, just it can hardly be depicted as a oversupply of people in an urban context.

As an element of art language, the artistic image in each work of art is unique. The artistic symbol is multidimensional: it arouses various feelings and non just serenity. It can give a feeling of cool detachment and sadness, and it can create a sensation of time dilation or other feelings; the symbol can correlate the viewer's state with his or her thinking. Complex emotional responses of the viewer to a work of art are the result of the successful use of the means of expression, particularly tropes, which serve to create an creative image.

I of the definitions of tropes was given in ancient times by the slap-up Roman orator Quintilian: "A trope is a alter of the meaning of a word into another one, enriching its semantics" (quoted in the Yartseva, 1990, p. 520). In the theory of rhetoric in that location is another definition of tropes, according to which a trope (from the Greek tropos) is "a discussion or a phrase in a figurative significant, a figurative expression, a shift in the semantics of a word from the straight meaning to the figurative, such equally metaphor, metonymy, apologue, litotes, hyperbole" (Alexandrov, 1999, p. 45). Almost trope constructions are based on "a semantic incompatibility. Creating a 'semantic paradox situation,' tropes make the boundaries betwixt the possible and the impossible in a linguistic communication, providing the atmospheric condition to get into the deep structure of reality (Naer, 1976, p. 77).

Metaphor

Metaphor is traditionally defined as a type of trope, a manual of the properties of one object (or phenomenon or aspect of life) to another considering of their similarity in any aspect or by dissimilarity (in Greek, metaphora is a fi gurative meaning). Examples of metaphors: fatal fi re of life (Alexander Blok); Russian federation– a kiss in the cold (Velimir Khlebnikov) (quoted in Zaretskaya, 2002, p. 261). A number of authors – for case, Timofeev and Turaev (1978), Zaretskaya (2002) – defi ne metaphor as a subconscious comparison in which the words like and as if are omitted but implied. Metaphor is remarkable for its conciseness and reticence; thus, it activates the reader'south perception. Unlike comparison, in which both of the objects that are being compared remain independent – even though the degree of independence differs (Chernets, 2000a) – metaphor creates a single prototype – in other words, it reduces the difference between objects or concepts (Chernets, 2000b). "In relation to metaphor such methods of expression every bit apologue, personification, synesthesia can be regarded as its variations (Arutyunova, 1979, p. 130).

From the perspective of psychology, the words that constitute a metaphorical pair are connotative (semantic) synonyms – for example, in the well-known poem by Mikhail Lermontov:

Clouds in the sky are eternal wanderers
Along the sky-blue steppe similar a chain of pearl
Rushing similar me, the exiled
From dear Northward to southward.

Past means of Charles Osgood'south semantic differential we analyzed (by calibration model) the image of the "clouds" and the image of "the exiled," and even though these concepts belong to completely unlike conceptual classes (in the infinite of the semantic differential by a number of bones factors), they have similar positions (which means they are connotative synonyms).

Indeed, what exercise a traveler and clouds have in common? Accor ding to the archaic anthropomorphism of inanimate objects ("the wind blows," "the rain pours," "the deject runs"), nosotros can give the elements of a metaphorical pair like psychological sensations, and, having established their identity by a number of factors, nosotros can brand transmit the backdrop of i object to the other. For example, having set the similarity betwixt "clouds" and "a traveler" according to the quality of loneliness, we defi ne both of them as being rejected.

On the footing of metaphoric expression mythological thinking is possible. So, in the 1990s, in the discussions about the possibility of the private ownership of land, the post-obit argument was used: Our land feeds us, it gives u.s. life, it is our mother, and a mother may not be sold. Then, from connotation synonymy (1 of the common meanings: life creation) the quality of one object (the mother) is transmitted to another (land) – in particular, the impossibility of selling belongings.

Metaphors appear in dreams, poetry, the individual and collective unconscious. Thus, the presence of affect decreases the dimension of semantic space (see Petrenko, 2005), and categorization of objects transmits a large number of highly differentiated subject-denotative characteristics to a limited number of basic underlying connotative factors. The objects belong to different semantic areas in the ordinary land of consciousness and have nothing in common in the object plan; when the semantic space is flattened, the objects get close because of their position in connotative space, and thus they become connotative synonyms and tin can be used as metaphors.

Metaphor and metonymy are used by a number of well-known researchers in semiotics and cultural studies of visual arts similar film (Arutyunova, 1979, 1990; Ivanov, 1973, 1981, 1998; Lotman, 1973; Shklovsky, 1983).

Visual comparisons in which metaphor, metonymy, contrast, and other literary techniques and tropes are used are quite common in medieval and modernistic paintings. Pictorial metaphor as well every bit "an artistic image" are concepts that are well known by art critics but are hardly used in psychology. We quote here intuitional descriptions of metaphorical painting from an Internet article dedicated to the anniversary exhibition of works by Dmitry Zhilinsky (Khachaturov, 2002, p. ane):

The angels past Zhilinsky are metaphors. The linguistic communication of metaphors in secular painting (sacred one does not count, because it is a window, opened from where metaphors become Revelation) is appropriate when the interpretation is optional. This option illustrates the biblical proverb "The current of air blows where it wishes." Here, an example from the afar past is illustrated in the painting Arnolfi ni Portrait by Jan van Eyck. We see a brilliant portrait. Wow! It makes a eye pound. Sweat comes off on the forehead. And merely then, in our mind, practice we realize that the usual order is no longer possible, that before us is non the everyday chaos just a catholic mystery. Nosotros take a book of Erwin Panofsky and eagerly await for confirmation of our approximate. We get-go interpreting hidden emblems and symbols in everyday life. Here is an example from the recent past – the portraits of Valentine Serov. The portraits are gorgeous. However, they do not claim to exist Borges's "drop," on which the universe shines and shakes. The hidden metaphors in Serov'south works become an ingenious scenic pantomime. There is no more than subtle sacral symbolism. Only visual associations are successfully found: a – peaches – freshness, the princess – a vase – luxury, and then forth. In the first (van Eyck) and in the second (Serov) paintings a viewer has a option: either look without "translating" into the metaphorical language or guess and compare.

The construction of a metaphor is supposed to unite dissimilar images, creating poetic expressiveness. "The two points that it (a metaphor) consists of, aesthetically, are quite equal. And this equality makes both points single and undividable" (Losev, 1991, p. 59). "Metaphor does non allow an object to belong to the form which information technology is really a part of but tries to get in a part of the category to which it cannot be assigned on a rational basis. Metaphor is a claiming to nature. The source of metaphor is a deliberate error in the taxonomy of objects. Metaphor works as a chiselled shift . Metaphor is not a reduced comparing, every bit information technology was defined in the time of Aristotle, but reduced contrasting" (Arutyunova, 1990, pp. 17-18).

In contemporary articles it is possible to discover several definitions of visual metaphors. Film theorist Carroll (1996) believes that a visual prototype cannot exist considered a metaphor if there is no merger of the two different areas of feel that grade a new, spatially express reality. Metaphor is formed by substituting unexpected visual elements for expected ones (in this case there should non be an existing, conventional connection) (Forceville, 1994, 1995, 1996).

Such definitions clarify the nature of visual metaphors; however, they are individual descriptions of visual metaphors. According to Arutyunova (1990, p. 22):

Picture 2. Frida Kahlo, Broken Column

Picture 3. Salvador Dali, Thursday east Persistence of Retention

Graphical metaphor is quite different from verbal metaphor. It creates neither new meanings nor new synonyms; it does not go beyond its context and does not have a stable position in the language of painting or film; it has no prospects for beingness beyond the piece of work of fine art in which it exists. The mechanism of creating pictorial metaphor is entirely different from the machinery for verbal metaphor, a prerequisite of which is that both its subjects (denotations) vest to dissimilar categories: the bones subject area (which is characterized by the metaphor) and the auxiliary subject (which implies its directly meaning). Pictorial metaphor lacks a double subject. It is nothing more than than an paradigm, which acquires in one or some other artistic context a symbolic (key) value, a broader, generalizing meaning.

Metaphor in painting is a source of bright ideas; it creates figurative works. Visual and exact metaphors should exist distinguished on the footing of their unlike representations – that is, both visual and verbal metaphors are two ways of expressing the same meaning. The significant and the metaphor in images can likewise be comprehended if the idea is given verbally (Refaie, 2003). "We read the literary text as a code. ...Character, symbol, metaphor, and apologue indeed accept more or less intelligible verbal and semantic meanings" (Arabov, 2003, p. xxx). Most verbal metaphors can exist extended into a visual plan – that is, they can be depicted in a picture or in a painting. Nevertheless, it is better (easier) to express actions and chronology verbally, and spatial relationships visually.

Pictures 2, iii, and 4 are examples of visual metaphors. In the selfportrait Broken Column, Frida Kahlo substitutes an ancient cavalcade broken in several places for her spine; the pain is depicted equally nails covering her body. Kahlo feels similar a broken column, which is a metaphor for her feelings or sensations. In visual metaphors the various objects and their backdrop are oft en combined in unexpected ways, making new meanings.

A visual metaphor is always a mystery for a viewer. It oft en combines incongruous attributes of various objects, immediately reversing the usual perception. A verbal metaphor can be reflected in visual terms and can exist easily recognized, but a purely creative visual metaphor is more than difficult to recognize.

Salvador Dali's The Persistence of Retentiveness (Picture show iii) is a visual metaphor. More often than not, we can say that this motion picture is a metaphor for time flexibility, fourth dimension relativity; the image of the metal pocket watch next to the "soft " one suggests that fourth dimension may move differently: flowing slowly or speeding sharply.

Pic iv. Ilya Glazunov, Th e Last Leaf

Another example of visual metaphor is the painting The Last Leafage by Ilya Glazunov (Pic iv). An open muzzle having no bird inside is a metaphor for the soul escaped from the body. A solitary leaf on the tree portrays the moments of life slipping away. The bust standing on the window sill and a sick man create a dissimilarity: life vs. death, eternal vs. temporal. A viewer tin see the "autumn" mood in the painting through the clouds, the last leaf on a dry out tree, the empty birdcage, the bust: a human life is about to break off as soon equally that concluding leafage falls off the co-operative. This painting is an example of a visual citation; it illustrates the story The Last Foliage by O. Henry.

Like a literary text, a painting oft en has interlocking sets of expression. The painting past Glazunov is a skilful instance. In this painting nosotros can run across two visual metaphors, a dissimilarity and a synecdoche, creating a complete artistic epitome.

Other Tropes

Metonymy (in Greek metonymia, renaming) in its linguistic significant is a trope based on the principle of contiguity. An object gets the proper noun of some other related object. The phenomena, connected through metonymy and forming "a subject pair," can exist continued in various means: for example, the object and the textile (have not eaten from the silver simply from the golden – Alexandr Griboyedov), (All in tulle and panne, Helen entered the room – Alexander Galich); the content and the container (The burnt furnace is crackling – Alexander Pushkin); the property holder and the property (Backbone conquers cities); the cosmos and the creator (A man... will take Belinsky and Gogol from the market – Nikolay Nekrasov); the place and the people residing in the identify (All of Moscow speaks about information technology). Metonymy as the transmission of a name is based on the contiguity of meanings, by and large spatial, temporal, and causal. Specifically, in metonymy the object's name exists irrespective of the subject, and they do not make a unmarried object (Zaretskaya, 2002). Metonymy is a vivid, symbolic trope. It creates and enhances the visually perceptible representation, describing the phenomenon indirectly. Lotman and the Tartu-Moscow Semiotic School (Ju.M. Lotman i tartusko- moskovskaja semioticheskaja shkola, 1994) define metonymy equally a trope that distinguishes substantial and specific aspects and excludes nonessential aspects.

We can run across metonymy in the painting The Doll past Glazunov (Motion picture v). A doll, not a child, is portrayed in the painting, only the doll reminds the viewer of a child; here is the counterpart of metonymy in a film.

Picture 5. Ilya Glazunov, The Doll

Picture show 6a. Francisco Goya, The Naked Maja

Visual metonymy works differently from verbal metonymy: no names are given to objects, simply the connection between them remains – for example, the child who was playing with the doll. Thus, the image of the doll refers the viewer to a child, denoting a retrospective focus of the story. A viewer seeing the doll visualizes and creates in his or her mind a story (fifty-fifty a well-nigh horrific i) about the child who was playing with the doll.

In paintings metonymy may exist used as a hidden citation: for example, the French Impressionists often en used the plots, themes, pain tings of the not bad Renaissance masters to depict eternal human bug in contemporary time and to requite their own piece of work a historical context (although at that time the correlation of the classical images of the great masters with the Impressionists, who somewhen also became great, shocked the audience). In the paintings by Francisco Goya (The Naked Maja, Picture 6a) and by Edouard Manet (Olympia , Moving picture 6b) i tin encounter citations to the famous Danae and Venus of Urbino by Titian (pictures 6c and 6d). Venus of Urbino, Olympia, and Maja are portrayed in domestic surroundings; both Venus of Urbino and Olympia accept the aforementioned posture, leaning on the correct paw; both women have a bracelet on the right arm and glance at the viewer. Both Venus of Urbino and Olympia take a kitten or a puppy at their feet and a retainer nearby. The glance of Olympia is every bit straight and open up equally that of Maja.

Picture 6b. Edouard Manet, Olympia

Picture 6c. Titian, Danae

Picture 6d. Titian, Venus of Urbino

Movie 7. A. Eisenstadt. Feast in the Campsite (Holiday in the Army camp)

Such visual citations, like those in literature, innovate a new work in a familiar context. Specifically, meanings are transferred onto the canvas; the new is comprehended within the established. Related citations are found not only in paintings and literature but also in shows and concert performances (for instance, performing the vocal "Live to Tell," Madonna appears crucified on a cross wearing a crown of thorns).

A special type of metonymy is synecdoche. Synecdoche (in Greek synecdoche is correlation) is defined past linguists (such as Rosenthal & Telenkova, 1976; Reformatsky, 1999; Dibrova, Kosatkin, & Scheboleva, 1997) equally the transmission of meaning from ane object to another, from one phenomenon to another, on the basis of the quantitative similarity between them. For example: Hey, beard! How exercise you lot get to Plyushkin's from here? (Nikolai Gogol), where "a man with a beard" and "beard" are correlated; And you lot, blueish uniforms, and you, the people obedient to them (Mikhail Lermontov), referring to gendarmes. Synecdoche differs from metonymy in that both subjects take some unity, are related equally a part of the whole, and do not exist independently (Zaretskaya, 2002).

Glazunov's The Last Foliage (Picture iv), portraying the legs of a man lying in bed, is an analogue of a synecdoche in visual terms. The legs refer to a whole paradigm of the man.

A painting past A. Eisenstadt (Picture 7) portrays the hands of different people. A viewer tin see here multiple meanings. On the one hand, these hands vest to different people with dissimilar characters (diff e rent gestures). On the other hand, these people are experiencing the farthermost hardship of prison life. They have a different destiny, but they have the same fork, cup, bottle – and the aforementioned dark lot.

Exaggeration (hyperbole) is widely used in both art and literature, as is understatement or some other alter of the dimension. In paintings, as Alexander Herzen wrote, "to acuminate angles and convexity thick paint is used" (Russkie pisateli o literaturnom trude, 1955, p. 38). Hyperbole (from the Greek hyperbole, exaggeration) is traditionally divers in linguistics as an "excessive exaggeration of sure backdrop of the depicted object or miracle" (Aksenova, 1974a, p. 59). This device is used to make the impression stronger. Mikhail Lomonosov gave the following defi nition: "Hyperbole is used when a positive notion makes a tension or passion stronger or weaker, e.g.: run quicker than a whirlwind; stars touching Atlas; temples fabricated from the mountain" (Lomonosov, 1952, p. 54). A visual counterpart of hyperbole is besides used to strengthen or weaken a "passion" – that is, to heighten the emotional impressions of an object or phenomenon.

In Russian literature hyperbole was widely used by Gogol, Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin, and especially Aleksey Tolstoy: My beloved, wide as the body of water, cannot be accommodated past the coast of life. An example of hyperbole in painting is the image of a gigantic effigy of a Bolshevik moving with a red banner beyond the city in the painting Bolshevik by Boris Kustodiev (Picture viii).

Very ofttimes en methods of expressiveness are interconnected in the text too equally in the painting. Bolshevik depicts a Russian urban area, a metaphor for Russia during the Revolution (Sandomirsky, 2007). The giant figure of the Bolshevik moves along the street through a crowd of small people, inevitably burdensome someone with each step; his adjacent step can easily destroy the church. This is the fashion unbridled power and fearfulness are portrayed. Without reference to critics' and biographers' opinions it is difficult to assess Kustodiev's piece of work. How consciously did he describe the fearfulness of the irresistible strength of Bolshevism? Or was he full of ambivalent feelings of adoration for national power and unconscious fear of this force?

Picture 8. Boris Kustodiev, Bolshevik

Picture 9. Hieronymus Bosch, Garden of Earthly Delights , a central part of the triptych

Motion picture 10. Prokofi ev I. Moidodyr (Soyuzmultfi lm, 1954, from a tale by Kornei Chukovsky)

Litotes (from the Greek Litotes) is "a trope, the opposite of hyperbole. ...It is a phrase that contains an artistic understatement of the value, forcefulness, semantics of a portrayed object or phenomenon" (Trofimov, 1974, p. 197), such equally a pocket-size mouth that cannot chew more than two pieces (Gogol). Hither, nosotros tin use every bit an example a painting by Hieronymus Bosch (Film nine). The image of small human figures portrays the insignificance, restlessness, sinfulness of man life. Each effigy is busy with its ain business organization, pottering. The painting creates the impression of chaos, confusion; it is like a expect from heaven at people'due south lives.

Personification (from the Latin prozopopy; Greek pροσωποποια) is "an image of an inanimate or an abstract object possessing the qualities of living beings" (Aksenova, 1974d, p. 252). The inanimate objects can possess human qualities or they tin possess the qualities of a mentioned concept: Bullets were singing, machine guns were beating, the air current was helping to lean palms on chests... more cheerlessly, stronger the wind rips the years from shoulders (Nikolai Aseev). The characters of the cartoon "Moidodyr" are visual analogues of personification (Picture x). The principal character of the cartoon (and the fairytale on which information technology is based) – a wash basin – possesses human qualities: it tin speak, sigh, move, and run into.

In improver, personification is always used in painting ancient gods and objects as human beings. In Moving-picture show 11 the wind has the appearance of a man existence. When an object is personified, viewers get a adventure to stand for the object brighter and stronger in their minds.

Allegory (from Greek allos, dissimilar; agoreuo, say) is "a figurative portrayal of abstract concepts expressed through specific, living images: in fables and fairy tales cunningness is portrayed as a fox, greed every bit a wolf, insidiousness as a ophidian, etc." (Rosenthal & Telenkova, 1976, p. 19). "Allegory is a specific depiction of an object or miracle of reality, replacing the abstract concept or idea. A green twig in the hands of a man has long been the emblematic delineation of peace, the hammer is an allegory of labor, etc." (Krupchanov, 1974a, p. 12.). "Allegory is a formallogical unit" (Losev, 1995, p. 152) – that is, an author using an allegory does non identify the allegorical image and depicted miracle: "a fabulist does not believe that animals speak like homo beings" (Losev, 1995, p. 152).

"The origin of nearly allegorical images tin can be found in the cultural traditions of tribes, people, and nations: they can be seen on the flags, emblems, badges and go sustainable. Many allegorical images engagement back to Greek and Roman mythology. Thus, the image of a blindfolded female person having scales in her hands is the goddess Themis, an allegory of justice; the prototype of a snake and chalice is an allegory of Medicine" (Yartseva, 1990, p. 35). The goddess Psyche is oft en depicted as a butterfly or as being accompanied by i (Picture 12). Psyche, according to Greek mythology, is "mortal; [she] gained immortality, became a symbol of the soul, seeking her ideal" (Godefroy, 1992, pp. 83-84). Numerous examples of allegories can be constitute in medieval paintings.

Allegory every bit a fashion to enhance poetic expression is widely used in literature. It is based on the convergence of correlation effects and their essential aspects, qualities, or functions and refers to a group of metaphorical tropes (Riesel & Schendels, 1975, p. 220). In a psychological sense, an allegory is an opportunity to experience some "inspiration," the feel of discovery, when an thought is presented by means of unexpected tools. In a painting such "inspiration" is reserved and weak because the viewer is more often than not aware of the fact that the Greek gods are oft en portrayed every bit human being beings.

Film 12. E. J. Poynter, Psyche in the Temple of Dear

Oxymoron (in Greek, oxymoron, acute stupidity) in the linguistic sense is a "combination of opposite definitions, concepts resulting in a new semantic quality" (Aksenova, 1974b, p. 252); it is a deliberate combination of contradictory notions: Expect, she is existence cheerfully sad. So smartly nude (Anna Akhmatova). An oxymoron is based on the unexpected combination of objects or concepts. "If [nosotros] introduce logically incompatible things at the same time, the mechanism of consciousness begins to wait for a way to bind them into a consistent unit. … Consciousness is trying to get rid of ambiguities" (Allakhverdov, 2001, pp. 66, 72).

We tin can exemplify an oxymoron with a Soviet-era joke. For a competition on the anniversary of Lenin's birth, diverse industrial enterprises produced commemorative products: a furniture manufactory fabricated a king size bed with the slogan "Lenin with usa"; a bath and laundry enterprise made a bass with the motto "Following Lenin's path"; a clock plant produced a cuckoo clock – at twelve o'clock precipitous a tiny figure of Lenin in an armored car popped out; he was making a specific gesture and saying "coo-coo."

The combination of incompatible images in an oxymoron and the combination of ii opposite parts in ane, as in physics, creates the annihilation of particles and antiparticles, accompanied past the release of energy. The combination of the sacred (the image of the Great Leader) and the profane (the cuckoo clock) arouses a number of clashing emotions and reduces the initial energy of the emotionally significant object. Apparently, this is a adequately universal trope in carnival culture (Bakhtin, 1965) and in satire; it does not necessarily imply sacrilege. In deeply religious medieval Spain during carnival churchgoers might make a parody of bishops and make fun of high society using vulgar jokes, and in gimmicky Catholic Spain one tin can easily buy toy monks and priests lifting a huge penis when a rear push button is pressed. During Boris Yeltsin'due south presidency a TV bear witness, The Dolls, used folk characters (similar Vasily Ivanovich, Petka, and Anka the Machine-Gunner) to mock political leaders, thus making them recognized and popular with the audience.

Picture 13. Francisco Goya, One-time Women Looking in a Mirror

In the 1990s, when a authorities helicopter with senior government officials on board landed in some remote outback of Russia, the locals ran upward to the helicopter shouting with a joy, "The Dolls have arrived!"

Another example of an oxymoron is Goya'southward painting One-time Women Looking in a Mirror (or Fourth dimension or Las Viejas – the painting has dissimilar names) (Flick 13).

The painting has satirical irony. In it an elderly woman wears bright makeup, makes a typical flirty gesture, and has a grinning facial expression. The wear, the accessories, the hairstyle do not suit her face or her age. The grotesque exaggeration is evident to the viewer; such a portrait is interpreted on the 1 mitt every bit deeply psychological and on the other manus as humorous.

Paraphrase (in Greek perifrasis, a descriptive expression) is another trope in linguistics; it "replaces the proper name of an object or person with their attributes" (Aksenova, 1974c, p. 267); it is "a stylistic device that gives the objects and phenomena an indirect and attributive description" (Yartseva, 1990, p. 371): young favorite of Thalia and Melpomene, generously gift ed by Apollo (a immature, talented actress) (Pushkin). A visual analogue of this trope requires the activity and the attributes and the symbols of the action to exist understood in the painting, although they are non portrayed in it. Other examples of a paraphrase are the illustrations on pages or covers of literature books that draw a pen, ink, paper lit by a candle. An example of a visual analogue of the trope is a well-known painting by Jean-Baptiste-Simeon Chardin, The Attributes of the Arts and the Rewards That Are Accorded Them (Moving-picture show 14). In that location is no artist in the painting, simply all the objects refer to an artist who is painting a yet life.

Picture xiv. Jean-Baptiste-Simeon Chardin, Th due east Attributes of the Arts and the Rewards Which Are Accorded Thursday em

Antithesis (from the Greek antithesis, contrast) is "a contrast of concepts and phenomena" (Krupchanov, 1974b, p. xviii). Nosotros tin see an antithesis in Tiger Attacking a Equus caballus (Picture xv), a painting by Eugene Delacroix. The coloring also creates a contrast: the two characters face each other, the hunter and the prey.

Picture show 15. Eugene Delacroix, Tiger Attacking a Horse

A triptych (for example, Picture 16a) or an icon with a hagiography (Picture 16b) consists of parts of a single idea that represent a type of story; such a "serial" is a device for making an image expressive. When viewers contemplate one picture of a triptych aft er another, they can trace the change in the plot. A triptych or a hagiography is a kind of a fi lm that shows a story through plot changes.

Picture 16a. Hieronymus Bosch, Garden of Earthly Delights

Picture 16b. Icon of St. Sergius and his hagiography

Some of the stylistic devices used in painting accept no analogues in literature – for instance, using contradictions in the logic of objects; compare the image of the violin in unlike projections by Pablo Picasso (Picture 17). The portrayal of an object in different projections is a technique that allows 1 to go beyond stereotypes, to have a different image to compare and dissimilarity. Such an paradigm gives new significant to the object.

Picture 17. Pablo Picasso, Violin and Grapes

In painting, unlike in literature, an observer inevitably has a perspective; it is usually similar to the artist'due south. In a literary text the narrator tin can have several possible perspectives; the narrator tin be either an author or a protagonist and also can change perspective in the course of the narration. For example, the main grapheme becomes an insect and begins to run across the world differently in The Metamorphosis (1915) by Franz Kafk a and in the curt story "The Granton Star Crusade" (1994) by Irvine Welsh. In a literary text, the alter of perspective takes a long fourth dimension, whereas in a painting it is simultaneous. So, an image of a mirror provides an observer with multiple possible perspectives simultaneously; run across, for example, the painting Laughing Couple (Joking Couple) by Hans von Aachen (Picture 18). The human being, holding a mirror, is gazing with passion at a young woman. The woman is admiring herself in the mirror. The painting (similar a polyphonic novel by Bakhtin) gives an observer multiple perspectives: that of the gazing human being, that of the young woman; the viewer'due south perspective plain agrees with that of the artist.

An image of a mirror is a typical method of visual semantics; it is like a Russian doll: a portrayal of infinite inside space. A story is always given to the audition from a certain perspective: "The objects... depicted in the picture can be visible to the states simply from a detail side and distance from the side, which [are]... chosen and captured past the artist in his paintings" (Ingarden, 1962, p. 280); using a mirror an creative person can portray additional perspectives. In paintings such techniques get in possible to consider the object from unlike perspectives and to open upwardly additional dimensions in the picture. Hither we have symbolism: the ability to come across something implicit, to understand the cloak-and-dagger. This device introduces a viewer to something implicit. The more perspectives in a work of fine art (in painting as well equally in literature), the more multidimensional the work is. In painting, the viewer's perspective is more essential than it is in literature. A like method in literature is a hypertext, which is a text inside a text.

Moving-picture show 18. Hans von Aachen, Laughing Couple (Joking Couple)

The painting Slave Market with the Invisible Bust of Voltaire by Dali (Picture 19) exemplifies the psychological method of groundwork change, in which the viewer alternately sees ii nuns (another interpretation is "ladies wearing Dutch dresses") or a bosom of Voltaire (by Jean-Antoine Houdon).

In improver to the psychological method of background change, which creates diverse semantic meanings (gestalts), perception is as well influenced by eye movements over the painting. Focusing attention on one element of the painting later on another creates a semantic contrast or, on the reverse, stresses their semantic similarity. This characteristic of human perception is used in still lifes, landscapes, and film.

Analysis of a pic by an unknown Korean artist (Motion-picture show xx) exemplifying figurative opposition reveals a semantic contrast: stable and permanent (houses on a rocky stronghold) vs. ever-changing, soft , and rolling (mount stream); but there is also another contrast: man-made, vulnerable to decay and breakup (the dwellings) vs. natural, always-changing, but eternal (mount stream).

Special methods of filmmaking, such as editing and close shots, should exist mentioned. A series of moving picture shots makes the content comprehensible, affects the emotional country of the viewer (the Kuleshov effect), and ultimately makes comprehension easy. Picture show construction is more essential and more expressive than "one point" structure (Eisenstein, 1938).

A painting (an image) is like a text to be read. A successfully used trope in a text is a source of its figurativeness and gives information technology new meaning. Tropes tin can also alter the perception of the text's content by encouraging the apply of imagination and guesses or by developing the plot, whenever possible, on the footing of comparison or metaphor (or other tropes). Each method of expression somehow modifies the paradigm. Such methods and techniques encourage viewers to use their imaginations and to alter their emotional states (the psychological method). Using direct and changed perspective, the method of the mirror, and background change; altering viewers' perspectives; changing focus; editing; and so forth are patently widely examined in the semiotics of art.

Picture nineteen. Salvador Dali, Slave Market place with the Invisible Bust of Voltaire

Picture 20. Painting past an unknown Korean creative person

Conclusion

When the elder of the coauthors of this article was a student, the renowned scientist Alexander Luria used to give lectures on psychology; he conspicuously distinguished the cognitive unit, which includes the work of memory, mental processes, and speech, from the emotional and energy unit of the human psyche, which includes needs, emotions, and motives. For Luria this contrast was not absolute; so he quoted L. Vygotsky and S. Rubinstein sympathetically on the "connection of emotional and cerebral processes" and the "unity of affect and intelligence." Even so, nowadays the connection of these mental spheres (perceptional and emotional) remains ill-researched, and problems about will, activeness, language, inventiveness, and emotional country are very rarely researched in combination.

A detailed commodity by Schultz and Lyubimova analyzes W. Humboldt's idea of the internal energy of linguistic communication and its involvement in activeness. "Expressing the volition, language becomes action. The origin of language, according to [Humboldt], is in people'due south strength and will. Information technology is prospective activity, which has verbal grade and expresses the by will, [and] structures and defines reality. This thesis by G. Foucault... goes back to Humboldt (Schultz & Lyubimova, 2008, p. 45).

The original estimation of Humboldt's ideas led to the "philosophy of the name," a distinctive motion in Russian philosophy in the 1910s and 1920s, developed in the works of P. Florensky, Southward. Bulgakov, and A. Losev. According to Losev, the inner core of a proper name is formed by a certain power or free energy. A word gets energized through its inherence in different positions in diverse levels of life. Schultz and Lyubimova cite Cassirer: "The ability to cover names means to think and act magically" (2008, p. 42). "A magical word does non describe objects and the relations between objects; it aims to produce deportment and alter natural phenomena, and the magical function of a word dominates the semantic part" (Cassirer). The worldview of the German Romanticists, the French symbolists, the to a higher place-mentioned Russian Orthodox existentialist philosophers of the magic of words, of the symbolic image equally a reflection of the spiritual, is expressed in the Russian poetry of the Symbolists and Acmeists of the Silvery Age (Blok, Nikolay Gumilev, Akhmatova).

In that 24-hour interval when the world is new
When God bowed his face up,
Th e Sun was stopped by a give-and-take,
Th e word of destroying the metropolis.
And the eagle was not fl apping its wings,
Th e stars huddled to the Moon in horror
Like a pinkish fl ame
Th e word fl oated in the heaven.

. . .

Nosotros have not forgotten the sowed
Only the word amongst the earthly troubles,
And in the Gospel of John
Was said, the give-and-take is God. (Gumilev, 1990, p. 201)

Understanding the text and figurative art, carrying internal energy and irresolute emotional states not only of the creator of a work of art but as well of the spectator, or, even more broadly, transforming the energy of an area and a society inspired united states of america to write this text. "Art... has such high artistic images, which aim to be not only a cocky-sufficient object of love for pleasure [and]... instruments of homo orientation in the vast sea of reality, but also an musical instrument for its creative remake" (Losev, 1995; italics added) .

Having analyzed the problems of metaphor and similar tropes, we have tried in this article to extend this philological perspective to a broader semiotic area, including visual fine art; we have provided in the text numerous illustrations to show the application of these tropes to creative intuition from the perspective of the reader and the viewer. At that place is nada new in this world; deep thoughts and observations on this subject have already been provided by Arutyunova (1990), Ivanov (1973, 1981), Lakoff & Johnson (1987), Lotman (1973; Ju.Grand. Lotman i tartuskomoskovskaja semioticheskaja shkola, 1994). Our specific arroyo to this theme is the post-obit: being professional person psychologists, nosotros analyzed tropes, primarily through a mental operation that constructs a psychological image, introducing it in a holistic context (soapbox), defining its emotional attitude, generating and stressing its meanings.

For case, psychological analysis of the chatty impact of neurolinguistic programming (NLP) (Bandler & Grinder, 1995) has revealed behavioral methods ranging from Pavlov'southward conditioned reflex to low-cal hypnotherapy and works past the hypnotherapist Milton Erickson. One of the major works of Bandler and Grinder is reasonably called The Structure of Magic (1975a, 1975b), as in this approach the verbal text, having aspects mentioned in the quote from Cassirer above, is regarded as a magical deed.

Unlike a psychoanalyst, who serves as an interpreter of letters of the unconscious (dreams, slips of the natural language, inappropriate actions, and and so along) and thereby completely overhauls the repressed past in the patient'southward memory, an NLP practitioner tin can (and even should) be interested in the content of the traumatic experiences of the patient. The patient is asked to make in his or her heed (but not to reveal) a picture of the stressful situation arousing negative emotions, to observe the situation, and to go a spectator. The patient may set the state of affairs closer or remove it; may go far duller or brighter; may alter the sharpness, and then forth. In whatever case, the patient switches from being a sufferer, who experienced the trauma, to existence an observer and a researcher, realizing the situation to be but another life experience. It is not only self-reflection can change a personal trauma into a general case of human being experience. The use of mental operations changes emotional and mental states (for example, from an emotionally depressed land into a state of spiritual peace or even a creative upsurge, when cocky-reflection needs a keen dialogue).

In literature the method of "detachment" is widely used; for example, in the novels of Albert Camus, the events of a character's life are depicted equally if from the outside and are completely detached from emotions. In Camus's novel A Stranger the primary character, describing his upcoming decease, which is the penalty for a murder he committed, switches to emotionally neutral, "behavioral" linguistic communication: "The French government should cutting off my head," etc. I of Gogol'southward stories, virtually receiving a long-awaited official award, is narrated from a dog's perspective; the dog has no understanding of the whole social order and evaluates the honour as being edible or not edible.

In Kafk a'due south novel The Metamorphosis, the narrator is a predatory insect, which one of the characters turned into. If the method of "disengagement" allows release of the emotional tension in a perceived situation past depersonalizing it, and then perception from a dissimilar point of view – from the perspective of a foreign-language speaker, a native of a foreign civilisation, an alien (as in Solaris by S. Lem) – allows ane to get beyond the stereotyped categorization of the situation, of ane's ain cocky, of the earth. Such disengagement allows one non only to encounter in a dissimilar way simply to construct other worlds of existence; co-ordinate to Castaneda, it gives "other points for unity."

Assay of poetry and painting through the employ of mental operations and means of working with meanings (particularly as expressed past tropes) requires an extended conceptual thesaurus of philological and semiotic terms and the introduction of definitions for such concepts as energy, representation, empathy and synchronicity, modified forms of consciousness, the magic of a word and the magic of an image, thinking – activity, thought – image, "objectifying" of imagination, construction of artistic possible worlds. According to Gostev (1998, p. 6), "Most people do not realize that their fate depends on the content of their imagination; imagination can fortunately or unfortunately get realized spontaneously." The point is that images create a unique "matrix" that attracts human psychic energy; it is filled with "a living cloth." The consequence is the creation of a program to realize the wanted or the unwanted.

This new field of report of the communicative impact of free energy, of free energy and information, arises at the intersection of fine art, poetry, the humanities, philosophy, semiotics, linguistics, psychology, advice theory, and the natural sciences (physics, information theory, proxemics, synergetics); it is awaiting its pioneers and researchers.

Acknowledgement

This report was supported by grant № 11-06-00242-а from the RHSE.

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To cite this article: Petrenko V.F., Korotchenko Eastward.A. (2012). Metaphor equally a Basic Machinery of Art (Painting) . Psychology in Russia: Country of the Fine art, v, 531-567

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